Thursday 25 March 2010
Spoken English Courses For All In South Mumbai
Spoken English Courses For All In South Mumbai: "I am 47, a postgraduate (M A) in English Literature. For the better part of the last 22 years my central activity has been as Private Tutor - English Languag..."
Tuesday 23 March 2010
Broadcast Journalism
Broadcast journalism is the field of news and journals which are "broadcast", that is, published by electrical methods, instead of the older methods, such as printed newspapers and posters. Broadcast methods include radio (via air, cable, and Internet), television (via air, cable, and Internet), and, especially recently, the Internet generally. Such media disperse pictures (static and moving), visual text, and/or sounds.
Scripts for speaking to be broadcast tend to be written differently than text to be read by the public. For instance, the former is generally less complex and more conversational. Radio and television are designed to be seen and heard sooner and more often than is a daily or weekly newspaper.
Broadcast "stories" (articles) can be written in "packages", "readers", "voice overs", and "sound on tape".
A "package" is an edited set of video clips for a news story and is common on television. It is narrated typically by a reporter. It is a story with audio, video, graphics and video effects. The anchor usually reads a "lead in" (introduction) before the package is aired and may conclude the story with additional information, called a tag.
A "reader" is an article read without accompanying video or sound. Sometimes an "over the shoulder graphic" is added.
A voice over, or VO, is a video article narrated by the anchor.
Sound on tape, or SOT, is sound and/or video, usually recorded in the field. It is usually an interview or "soundbite".
[edit] Radio
Radio was the first medium for broadcast journalism. Many of the first radio stations were co-operative community ventures not making a profit. Later, advertising to pay for programs was pioneered in radio. Later, television displaced radio and newspapers as the main news sources for most of the public in industrialized countries.
Some of the programming on radio is locally produced; some is broadcast by a network, by syndication, etc. The "talent" (professional voices) talk to the audience, including reading the news. People tune in to hear engaging personalities, music, and information that they want. In radio news, stories include speech "sound bites", the recorded sounds of events themselves, and the anchor or host.
The radio industry has undergone a radical consolidation of ownership, with fewer companies owning the thousands of stations. Large media conglomerates such as Clear Channel Communications own most of the stations in the United States. That has resulted in more "niche" formats and the sharing of resources within clusters of stations, de-emphasizing local news and information. There has been concern over whether that concentration of power serves the public. The opposition says that the range of political views expressed and supported is greatly narrowed and that local concerns are neglected, including local emergencies, for which communication is critical. Automation has resulted in many stations broadcasting for many hours a day with no one on the station premises.
[edit] Television
Television (TV) news is considered by many to be the most influential medium for journalism. For most of the American public, local and national TV newscasts are the primary news sources. Not only the numbers of viewers, but the effect on each viewer is considered more persuasive, as described by Marshall McLuhan ("the medium is the message" in his book Understanding Media). Television is dominated by attractive visuals (including beauty, action, and shock), with short sound bites and fast "cuts" (changes of camera view). Television journalism viewership has become fragmented, with all-news cable channels such as CNN starting in 1980 and Fox News Channel and MSNBC in the 1990s.
[edit] Local Television
The industry divides television into local markets. Such markets are defined by viewing area and are ranked by the number of viewers. New broadcast journalists generally start in the smaller markets (fewer viewers) and move up to larger stations after gaining experience. The larger stations usually have more resources and better pay.
United States stations typically broadcast local news 3 or 4 times a day: around 4:30, 5 or 6 am, 11, 11:30 am or noon, 5 and/or 6 pm, and 10 and/or 11 at night. Most of their nightly local newscasts are 30 minutes and include sports and weather. Anchors are shown sitting at a desk in a studio. They read teleprompters. Reporters frequently tell their stories in live shots outside the studio where the news is occurring. Morning shows include more "soft" news and feature pieces, while the evening news emphasizes "hard" news.
[edit] News jobs
Anchors (formerly "anchormen"), serve as masters of ceremonies and are usually shown facing the camera in a studio while reading unseen teleprompters. They are often in pairs (co-anchors) side by side, often alternating their reading. Meteorologists describe and forecast weather and show "graphics" (maps, charts, and pictures). Any of those people can become the most recognizable faces of a station. Reporters research and write the stories and sometimes edit them into a package. Reporters are usually accompanied by a videographer at the scenes of the news. The latter holds the camera. That person or assistants manage the audio and lighting. They are in charge of setting up live shots and might edit, too. The producer might choose, research, and write stories, as well as deciding the timing and arrangement of the newscast. An associate producer, if any, might specialize in elements of the show such as graphics.
[edit] Production jobs
A newscast director is in charge of show preparation, including assigning camera and talent (cast) positions on the set, as well as selecting the camera shots and other elements (recorded and live). The technical director operates the video switcher which controls and mixes all the elements of the show. At smaller stations, the director and technical director are the same person. A graphics person operates a character generator that produces the name keys (on-screen titles) and full-page graphics. The audio technician operates the audio board. The technician is in charge of the microphones, music, and audio tape. Often, production assistants operate the teleprompters and cameras, and serve as lighting and rigging technicians ("grips").
[edit] On-line convergence
Convergence is the sharing and cross-promoting of content from a variety of media, which in theory might all converge and become one medium eventually. In broadcast news, the Internet is key part of convergence. Frequently, broadcast journalists also write text stories for the Web, usually accompanied by the graphics and sound of the original story. Web sites offer the audience an interactive form where they can learn more about a story, can be referred to related articles, can offer comments for publication, and can print stories at home, etc. Convergence also lets newsrooms collaborate with other media. Broadcast outlets sometimes have partnerships with their print counterparts.
[edit] References
DeFleur, Melvin (2002). Understanding Mass Communication. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 0-618-12857-3.
Associated Press (2001). Broadcast News Handbook: A Manual of Techniques and Practices. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-7136-3882.
Brooks, Brian (2004). Telling the Story: The Convergence of Print, Broadcast and Online Media. Boston: Bedford, St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-40906-0.
McLuhan, Marshall (1964). Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press (also New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964; Critical edition, Gingko Press, 2003). ISBN 0-26263159-8, ISBN 978-0-26263159-4.
Portal to Nielsen Media DMA ranks 2007-2008
Atmospheric Science Data Center - Meteorologist
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast_journalism"
Scripts for speaking to be broadcast tend to be written differently than text to be read by the public. For instance, the former is generally less complex and more conversational. Radio and television are designed to be seen and heard sooner and more often than is a daily or weekly newspaper.
Broadcast "stories" (articles) can be written in "packages", "readers", "voice overs", and "sound on tape".
A "package" is an edited set of video clips for a news story and is common on television. It is narrated typically by a reporter. It is a story with audio, video, graphics and video effects. The anchor usually reads a "lead in" (introduction) before the package is aired and may conclude the story with additional information, called a tag.
A "reader" is an article read without accompanying video or sound. Sometimes an "over the shoulder graphic" is added.
A voice over, or VO, is a video article narrated by the anchor.
Sound on tape, or SOT, is sound and/or video, usually recorded in the field. It is usually an interview or "soundbite".
[edit] Radio
Radio was the first medium for broadcast journalism. Many of the first radio stations were co-operative community ventures not making a profit. Later, advertising to pay for programs was pioneered in radio. Later, television displaced radio and newspapers as the main news sources for most of the public in industrialized countries.
Some of the programming on radio is locally produced; some is broadcast by a network, by syndication, etc. The "talent" (professional voices) talk to the audience, including reading the news. People tune in to hear engaging personalities, music, and information that they want. In radio news, stories include speech "sound bites", the recorded sounds of events themselves, and the anchor or host.
The radio industry has undergone a radical consolidation of ownership, with fewer companies owning the thousands of stations. Large media conglomerates such as Clear Channel Communications own most of the stations in the United States. That has resulted in more "niche" formats and the sharing of resources within clusters of stations, de-emphasizing local news and information. There has been concern over whether that concentration of power serves the public. The opposition says that the range of political views expressed and supported is greatly narrowed and that local concerns are neglected, including local emergencies, for which communication is critical. Automation has resulted in many stations broadcasting for many hours a day with no one on the station premises.
[edit] Television
Television (TV) news is considered by many to be the most influential medium for journalism. For most of the American public, local and national TV newscasts are the primary news sources. Not only the numbers of viewers, but the effect on each viewer is considered more persuasive, as described by Marshall McLuhan ("the medium is the message" in his book Understanding Media). Television is dominated by attractive visuals (including beauty, action, and shock), with short sound bites and fast "cuts" (changes of camera view). Television journalism viewership has become fragmented, with all-news cable channels such as CNN starting in 1980 and Fox News Channel and MSNBC in the 1990s.
[edit] Local Television
The industry divides television into local markets. Such markets are defined by viewing area and are ranked by the number of viewers. New broadcast journalists generally start in the smaller markets (fewer viewers) and move up to larger stations after gaining experience. The larger stations usually have more resources and better pay.
United States stations typically broadcast local news 3 or 4 times a day: around 4:30, 5 or 6 am, 11, 11:30 am or noon, 5 and/or 6 pm, and 10 and/or 11 at night. Most of their nightly local newscasts are 30 minutes and include sports and weather. Anchors are shown sitting at a desk in a studio. They read teleprompters. Reporters frequently tell their stories in live shots outside the studio where the news is occurring. Morning shows include more "soft" news and feature pieces, while the evening news emphasizes "hard" news.
[edit] News jobs
Anchors (formerly "anchormen"), serve as masters of ceremonies and are usually shown facing the camera in a studio while reading unseen teleprompters. They are often in pairs (co-anchors) side by side, often alternating their reading. Meteorologists describe and forecast weather and show "graphics" (maps, charts, and pictures). Any of those people can become the most recognizable faces of a station. Reporters research and write the stories and sometimes edit them into a package. Reporters are usually accompanied by a videographer at the scenes of the news. The latter holds the camera. That person or assistants manage the audio and lighting. They are in charge of setting up live shots and might edit, too. The producer might choose, research, and write stories, as well as deciding the timing and arrangement of the newscast. An associate producer, if any, might specialize in elements of the show such as graphics.
[edit] Production jobs
A newscast director is in charge of show preparation, including assigning camera and talent (cast) positions on the set, as well as selecting the camera shots and other elements (recorded and live). The technical director operates the video switcher which controls and mixes all the elements of the show. At smaller stations, the director and technical director are the same person. A graphics person operates a character generator that produces the name keys (on-screen titles) and full-page graphics. The audio technician operates the audio board. The technician is in charge of the microphones, music, and audio tape. Often, production assistants operate the teleprompters and cameras, and serve as lighting and rigging technicians ("grips").
[edit] On-line convergence
Convergence is the sharing and cross-promoting of content from a variety of media, which in theory might all converge and become one medium eventually. In broadcast news, the Internet is key part of convergence. Frequently, broadcast journalists also write text stories for the Web, usually accompanied by the graphics and sound of the original story. Web sites offer the audience an interactive form where they can learn more about a story, can be referred to related articles, can offer comments for publication, and can print stories at home, etc. Convergence also lets newsrooms collaborate with other media. Broadcast outlets sometimes have partnerships with their print counterparts.
[edit] References
DeFleur, Melvin (2002). Understanding Mass Communication. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 0-618-12857-3.
Associated Press (2001). Broadcast News Handbook: A Manual of Techniques and Practices. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-7136-3882.
Brooks, Brian (2004). Telling the Story: The Convergence of Print, Broadcast and Online Media. Boston: Bedford, St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-40906-0.
McLuhan, Marshall (1964). Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press (also New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964; Critical edition, Gingko Press, 2003). ISBN 0-26263159-8, ISBN 978-0-26263159-4.
Portal to Nielsen Media DMA ranks 2007-2008
Atmospheric Science Data Center - Meteorologist
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast_journalism"
Saturday 6 March 2010
11 Common Grammar mistakes
11 Common Grammar mistakes
Professional writers often worry that their work is unnecessary. After all, can’t anyone with even a basic education write? The answer: no, they can’t. Even college graduates don’t seem to be learning composition basics.
Of course not everyone is going to be the next Mark Twain, but career success does depend on avoiding certain errors. It takes just one person to see just one mistake for you to be discounted.
Avoid these 11 mistakes, write better, and get the job!
Constipated Clauses
Reporting on the feats and foibles of the Red Sox, a writer for South Coast Today notes: “It goes without saying that these exploits take a tremendous amount of skill.”
If it “goes without saying” then don’t say it. If it doesn’t, in fact, go without saying, then don’t say it does.
“Obviously, the sky is blue.” Putting the “obviously” doesn’t suddenly make the statement insightful.
Comma Vomit
True or false: a comma must precede any use of the word “and”? FALSE. Commas should only precede and, but, for, or, nor, so, or yet when they introduce an independent clause. For example, “We laid out our music and snacks, and began to study.” Placing a comma after “snacks” is incorrect. The subject of the sentence has not changed, “we” still “began to study.”
An example of correct comma use: “The game was over, and the crowd began to leave.” The game and the crowd are different subjects and the clauses are independent. The crowd could still be leaving regardless of what is happening with the game.
A comma can also precede “and” when it is used in a list of three or more items. However, in a list it is entirely optional and called an “oxford comma”.
While that is probably the most common overuse, others are prevalent. Just because you think you would pause at a certain point when speaking, it does not mean you need a comma. For a complete guide to using and misusing commas, check out this guide!
Comma Use1. Use commas to separate independent clauses when they are joined by any of these seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.
The game was over, but the crowd refused to leave.
The student explained her question, yet the instructor still didn't seem to understand.
Yesterday was her brother's birthday, so she took him out to dinner.
2. Use commas after introductory a) clauses, b) phrases, or c) words that come before the main clause.
a. Common starter words for introductory clauses that should be followed by a comma include after, although, as, because, if, since, when, while.
While I was eating, the cat scratched at the door.
Because her alarm clock was broken, she was late for class.
If you are ill, you ought to see a doctor.
When the snow stops falling, we'll shovel the driveway.
However, don't put a comma after the main clause when a dependent (subordinate) clause follows it (except for cases of extreme contrast).
Incorrect: She was late for class, because her alarm clock was broken.
Incorrect: The cat scratched at the door, while I was eating.
Correct: She was still quite upset, although she had won the Oscar. (This comma use is correct because it is an example of extreme contrast)
b. Common introductory phrases that should be followed by a comma include participial and infinitive phrases, absolute phrases, nonessential appositive phrases, and long prepositional phrases (over four words).
Having finished the test, he left the room.
To get a seat, you'd better come early.
After the test but before lunch, I went jogging.
The sun radiating intense heat, we sought shelter in the cafe.
c. Common introductory words that should be followed by a comma include yes, however, well.
Well, perhaps he meant no harm.
Yes, the package should arrive tomorrow morning.
However, you may not be satisfied with the results.
3. Use a pair of commas in the middle of a sentence to set off clauses, phrases, and words that are not essential to the meaning of the sentence. Use one comma before to indicate the beginning of the pause and one at the end to indicate the end of the pause.
Here are some clues to help you decide whether the sentence element is essential:
• If you leave out the clause, phrase, or word, does the sentence still make sense?
• Does the clause, phrase, or word interrupt the flow of words in the original sentence?
• If you move the element to a different position in the sentence, does the sentence still make sense?
If you answer "yes" to one or more of these questions, then the element in question is nonessential and should be set off with commas. Here are some example sentences with nonessential elements:
Clause: That Tuesday, which happens to be my birthday, is the only day when I am available to meet.
Phrase: This restaurant has an exciting atmosphere. The food, on the other hand, is rather bland.
Word: I appreciate your hard work. In this case, however, you seem to have over-exerted yourself.
4. Do not use commas to set off essential elements of the sentence, such as clauses beginning with that (relative clauses). That clauses after nouns are always essential. That clauses following a verb expressing mental action are always essential.
That clauses after nouns:
The book that I borrowed from you is excellent.
The apples that fell out of the basket are bruised.
That clauses following a verb expressing mental action:
She believes that she will be able to earn an A.
He is dreaming that he can fly.
I contend that it was wrong to mislead her.
They wished that warm weather would finally arrive.
Examples of other essential elements (no commas):
Students who cheat only harm themselves.
The baby wearing a yellow jumpsuit is my niece.
The candidate who had the least money lost the election.
Examples of nonessential elements (set off by commas):
Fred, who often cheats, is just harming himself.
My niece, wearing a yellow jumpsuit, is playing in the living room.
The Green party candidate, who had the least money, lost the election.
Apples, which are my favorite fruit, are the main ingredient in this recipe.
Professor Benson, grinning from ear to ear, announced that the exam would be tomorrow.
Tom, the captain of the team, was injured in the game.
It is up to you, Jane, to finish.
She was, however, too tired to make the trip.
Two hundred dollars, I think, is sufficient.
5. Use commas to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses written in a series.
The Constitution establishes the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government.
The candidate promised to lower taxes, protect the environment, reduce crime, and end unemployment.
The prosecutor argued that the defendant, who was at the scene of the crime, who had a strong revenge motive, and who had access to the murder weapon, was guilty of homicide.
6. Use commas to separate two or more coordinate adjectives that describe the same noun. Be sure never to add an extra comma between the final adjective and the noun itself or to use commas with non-coordinate adjectives.
Coordinate adjectives are adjectives with equal ("co"-ordinate) status in describing the noun; neither adjective is subordinate to the other. You can decide if two adjectives in a row are coordinate by asking the following questions:
• Does the sentence make sense if the adjectives are written in reverse order?
• Does the sentence make sense if the adjectives are written with and between them?
If you answer yes to these questions, then the adjectives are coordinate and should be separated by a comma. Here are some examples of coordinate and non-coordinate adjectives:
He was a difficult, stubborn child. (coordinate)
They lived in a white frame house. (non-coordinate)
She often wore a gray wool shawl. (non-coordinate)
Your cousin has an easy, happy smile. (coordinate)
The 1) relentless, 2) powerful 3) summer sun beat down on them. (1-2 are coordinate; 2-3 are non-coordinate.)
The 1) relentless, 2) powerful, 3) oppressive sun beat down on them. (Both 1-2 and 2-3 are coordinate.)
7. Use a comma near the end of a sentence to separate contrasted coordinate elements or to indicate a distinct pause or shift.
He was merely ignorant, not stupid.
The chimpanzee seemed reflective, almost human.
You're one of the senator's close friends, aren't you?
The speaker seemed innocent, even gullible.
8. Use commas to set off phrases at the end of the sentence that refer back to the beginning or middle of the sentence. Such phrases are free modifiers that can be placed anywhere in the sentence without causing confusion. (If the placement of the modifier causes confusion, then it is not "free" and must remain "bound" to the word it modifies.)
Nancy waved enthusiastically at the docking ship, laughing joyously. (correct)
Incorrect:Lisa waved at Nancy, laughing joyously. (Who is laughing, Lisa or Nancy?)
Laughing joyously, Lisa waved at Nancy. (correct)
Lisa waved at Nancy, who was laughing joyously. (correct)
9. Use commas to set off all geographical names, items in dates (except the month and day), addresses (except the street number and name), and titles in names.
Birmingham,Alabama, gets its name from Birmingham, England.
July 22, 1959, was a momentous day in his life. Who lives at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, DC?
Rachel B. Lake, MD, will be the principal speaker.
(When you use just the month and the year, no comma is necessary after the month or year: "The average temperatures for July 1998 are the highest on record for that month.")
10. Use a comma to shift between the main discourse and a quotation.
John said without emotion, "I'll see you tomorrow."
"I was able," she answered, "to complete the assignment."
In 1848, Marx wrote, "Workers of the world, unite!"
11. Use commas wherever necessary to prevent possible confusion or misreading.
To George,Harrison had been a sort of idol.
Comma Abuse
Commas in the wrong places can break a sentence into illogical segments or confuse readers with unnecessary and unexpected pauses.
12. Don't use a comma to separate the subject from the verb.
Incorrect:An eighteen-year old in California, is now considered an adult.
Incorrect:The most important attribute of a ball player, is quick reflex actions.
13. Don't put a comma between the two verbs or verb phrases in a compound predicate.
Incorrect:We laid out our music and snacks, and began to study.
Incorrect:I turned the corner, and ran smack into a patrol car.
14. Don't put a comma between the two nouns, noun phrases, or noun clauses in a compound subject or compound object.
Incorrect (compound subject):The music teacher from your high school, and the football coach from mine are married.
Incorrect (compound object):Jeff told me that the job was still available, and that the manager wanted to interview me.
15. Don't put a comma after the main clause when a dependent (subordinate) clause follows it (except for cases of extreme contrast).
Incorrect (extreme contrast):She was late for class, because her alarm clock was broken. (incorrect)
Incorrect:The cat scratched at the door, while I was eating.
Correct:She was still quite upset, although she had won the Oscar.(This comma use is correct because it is an example of extreme contrast)
The Death of Adverbs
Once upon a time, the English language had a way to modify both nouns and verbs. Adjectives did the trick on the former and adverbs on the latter. You didn’t just have to walk, you could walk quickly!
Adverbs modify verbs. For example, you accomplish a task with ease. What do you say?
WRONG: I can do that easy!
RIGHT: I can do that easily!
You accomplish a task with more ease than your colleagues. What do you say?
WRONG: I can do that easier than they can.
RIGHT: I can do that more easily than they can.
Less vs. Fewer
A professional’s skills are not on par with yours. How would you describe that: “He has less skill than I” or “He has fewer skills than I do”? You could use both! Less describes something that is not finite, like a trait. In the first case, “skill” does not refer to any particular skill, it denotes skill like “talent” or “intelligence.”
Fewer describes finite, listable items. In the second case, you have a larger skill set than the other professional. You could list those skills that you have and the ones he doesn’t.
Too often, people over- and mis-use “less.” They’ll say something like, “He has less skills than I do.” Say that and you’ve shown you have less intelligence and fewer brains than your competitors.
Etc. Etc. Etc. Etc. Etc. Etc.
Et cetera: a useful Latin-derived tool for shortening lists. However, unless you are a lawyer, using it (and especially overusing it) can make you sound unprofessional.
If you must, use it once. A second or third occurrence in the same document essentially says, “I really don’t know what I’m talking about, so I’ll just jam etc. on the end and try to pretend I do!”
Another et cetera mistake is using it when you should use “et al.” Listing a set of objects? Use etc. Listing a group of people? Use et al. It also is derived from Latin and means “and others.”
Prevarication Junction
“I think that I would be an ideal candidate for this position.”
“I think that my product would do wonders for your company.”
“Studies show that people like this product more.”
Draw a line through each of those sentences. As a teacher told me in high school once, “Don’t tell me what you think. Tell me what you know.” Similarly, don’t talk about studies. If you think a study is reliable—and you probably do if you rely on its results—just say what those reliable results were. If someone asks, you can always point them to the study in question.
These phrases ultimately end up making your writing much longer than it needs to be. What’s worse, they make you appear afraid: not assertive enough to express your own opinion and unsure of what you are writing about.
If you really don’t know what you’re talking about…don’t talk about it
The Affect-Effect Divide
His affect had an effect on me and affected me so much that I had to effect a change in my work environment.
WRONG USAGE: “Our products will positively effect your business;” or “My skills will substantially effect your company.”
Affect and effect can both be nouns and verbs.
Rule of thumb for the most common uses: use affect as a verb and effect as a noun.
An affect (noun) is an artificial air that someone puts on. Do you pretend to have a British accent? That’s an affect.
To affect something (verb) is to change it.
An effect (noun) is the result of someone or something affecting something.
To effect (verb) means to accomplish or make something happen.
Then≠Than
When one event follows another, we use thEn. For instance, “The clouds appeared, then it rained.”
When two things are being compared, we use thAn. “Grandma is shorter than Grandpa.”
Although most people learned this in elementary school, they seem to forget more thAn anyone would like. Just this month a news site in Santa Clara, California published a review of “WALL-E”. The critic said, “The film was shorter then I would’ve liked.”
None is.
It’s an easy trap in which to fall.
“While I am certain there were many applicants for this job, none of them are as experienced as me.” WRONG!
We hope you wouldn’t actually write a sentence like that even without the grammatical error, but making none plural makes it even worse. None is singular. None is always singular.
While the “them” toward the end may make you think, “A ha! Multiples!”, the subject is still none, which (did we mention?) is singular. “None of them is” may sound a little off to some, but it is correct English.
i.e. is not e.g. is not i.e.
Some people seem to think that throwing an “i.e.” into a paragraph makes them look smarter. Unfortunately, most of those people are using i.e. to mean “for example.”
WRONG: “I have sold many products, i.e. washing machines.” This doesn’t make any sense.
i.e. is an abbreviation of the Latin words id est, literally translated as “that is.” In English, i.e. is used synonymously with “namely.” It specifies and limits.
e.g. is also a Latin abbreviation but of the words exempli gratia, meaning “for example.” E.g. implies, “This is one of several possible options.”
Could of
When speaking, certain contractions can sound like other words. “Could’ve” rolls off the tongue like “could of.” You have to be careful that does not slip into your writing.
In the past tense, could, would and should must never be followed by “of.” If you use contractions in your writing, the words are “could’ve, would’ve, should’ve.” If you don’t, they are “could have, would have, should have.”
It’s an easy mistake to make. Scan any document or business e-mail you write and make sure it’s correct.
Professional writers often worry that their work is unnecessary. After all, can’t anyone with even a basic education write? The answer: no, they can’t. Even college graduates don’t seem to be learning composition basics.
Of course not everyone is going to be the next Mark Twain, but career success does depend on avoiding certain errors. It takes just one person to see just one mistake for you to be discounted.
Avoid these 11 mistakes, write better, and get the job!
Constipated Clauses
Reporting on the feats and foibles of the Red Sox, a writer for South Coast Today notes: “It goes without saying that these exploits take a tremendous amount of skill.”
If it “goes without saying” then don’t say it. If it doesn’t, in fact, go without saying, then don’t say it does.
“Obviously, the sky is blue.” Putting the “obviously” doesn’t suddenly make the statement insightful.
Comma Vomit
True or false: a comma must precede any use of the word “and”? FALSE. Commas should only precede and, but, for, or, nor, so, or yet when they introduce an independent clause. For example, “We laid out our music and snacks, and began to study.” Placing a comma after “snacks” is incorrect. The subject of the sentence has not changed, “we” still “began to study.”
An example of correct comma use: “The game was over, and the crowd began to leave.” The game and the crowd are different subjects and the clauses are independent. The crowd could still be leaving regardless of what is happening with the game.
A comma can also precede “and” when it is used in a list of three or more items. However, in a list it is entirely optional and called an “oxford comma”.
While that is probably the most common overuse, others are prevalent. Just because you think you would pause at a certain point when speaking, it does not mean you need a comma. For a complete guide to using and misusing commas, check out this guide!
Comma Use1. Use commas to separate independent clauses when they are joined by any of these seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.
The game was over, but the crowd refused to leave.
The student explained her question, yet the instructor still didn't seem to understand.
Yesterday was her brother's birthday, so she took him out to dinner.
2. Use commas after introductory a) clauses, b) phrases, or c) words that come before the main clause.
a. Common starter words for introductory clauses that should be followed by a comma include after, although, as, because, if, since, when, while.
While I was eating, the cat scratched at the door.
Because her alarm clock was broken, she was late for class.
If you are ill, you ought to see a doctor.
When the snow stops falling, we'll shovel the driveway.
However, don't put a comma after the main clause when a dependent (subordinate) clause follows it (except for cases of extreme contrast).
Incorrect: She was late for class, because her alarm clock was broken.
Incorrect: The cat scratched at the door, while I was eating.
Correct: She was still quite upset, although she had won the Oscar. (This comma use is correct because it is an example of extreme contrast)
b. Common introductory phrases that should be followed by a comma include participial and infinitive phrases, absolute phrases, nonessential appositive phrases, and long prepositional phrases (over four words).
Having finished the test, he left the room.
To get a seat, you'd better come early.
After the test but before lunch, I went jogging.
The sun radiating intense heat, we sought shelter in the cafe.
c. Common introductory words that should be followed by a comma include yes, however, well.
Well, perhaps he meant no harm.
Yes, the package should arrive tomorrow morning.
However, you may not be satisfied with the results.
3. Use a pair of commas in the middle of a sentence to set off clauses, phrases, and words that are not essential to the meaning of the sentence. Use one comma before to indicate the beginning of the pause and one at the end to indicate the end of the pause.
Here are some clues to help you decide whether the sentence element is essential:
• If you leave out the clause, phrase, or word, does the sentence still make sense?
• Does the clause, phrase, or word interrupt the flow of words in the original sentence?
• If you move the element to a different position in the sentence, does the sentence still make sense?
If you answer "yes" to one or more of these questions, then the element in question is nonessential and should be set off with commas. Here are some example sentences with nonessential elements:
Clause: That Tuesday, which happens to be my birthday, is the only day when I am available to meet.
Phrase: This restaurant has an exciting atmosphere. The food, on the other hand, is rather bland.
Word: I appreciate your hard work. In this case, however, you seem to have over-exerted yourself.
4. Do not use commas to set off essential elements of the sentence, such as clauses beginning with that (relative clauses). That clauses after nouns are always essential. That clauses following a verb expressing mental action are always essential.
That clauses after nouns:
The book that I borrowed from you is excellent.
The apples that fell out of the basket are bruised.
That clauses following a verb expressing mental action:
She believes that she will be able to earn an A.
He is dreaming that he can fly.
I contend that it was wrong to mislead her.
They wished that warm weather would finally arrive.
Examples of other essential elements (no commas):
Students who cheat only harm themselves.
The baby wearing a yellow jumpsuit is my niece.
The candidate who had the least money lost the election.
Examples of nonessential elements (set off by commas):
Fred, who often cheats, is just harming himself.
My niece, wearing a yellow jumpsuit, is playing in the living room.
The Green party candidate, who had the least money, lost the election.
Apples, which are my favorite fruit, are the main ingredient in this recipe.
Professor Benson, grinning from ear to ear, announced that the exam would be tomorrow.
Tom, the captain of the team, was injured in the game.
It is up to you, Jane, to finish.
She was, however, too tired to make the trip.
Two hundred dollars, I think, is sufficient.
5. Use commas to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses written in a series.
The Constitution establishes the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government.
The candidate promised to lower taxes, protect the environment, reduce crime, and end unemployment.
The prosecutor argued that the defendant, who was at the scene of the crime, who had a strong revenge motive, and who had access to the murder weapon, was guilty of homicide.
6. Use commas to separate two or more coordinate adjectives that describe the same noun. Be sure never to add an extra comma between the final adjective and the noun itself or to use commas with non-coordinate adjectives.
Coordinate adjectives are adjectives with equal ("co"-ordinate) status in describing the noun; neither adjective is subordinate to the other. You can decide if two adjectives in a row are coordinate by asking the following questions:
• Does the sentence make sense if the adjectives are written in reverse order?
• Does the sentence make sense if the adjectives are written with and between them?
If you answer yes to these questions, then the adjectives are coordinate and should be separated by a comma. Here are some examples of coordinate and non-coordinate adjectives:
He was a difficult, stubborn child. (coordinate)
They lived in a white frame house. (non-coordinate)
She often wore a gray wool shawl. (non-coordinate)
Your cousin has an easy, happy smile. (coordinate)
The 1) relentless, 2) powerful 3) summer sun beat down on them. (1-2 are coordinate; 2-3 are non-coordinate.)
The 1) relentless, 2) powerful, 3) oppressive sun beat down on them. (Both 1-2 and 2-3 are coordinate.)
7. Use a comma near the end of a sentence to separate contrasted coordinate elements or to indicate a distinct pause or shift.
He was merely ignorant, not stupid.
The chimpanzee seemed reflective, almost human.
You're one of the senator's close friends, aren't you?
The speaker seemed innocent, even gullible.
8. Use commas to set off phrases at the end of the sentence that refer back to the beginning or middle of the sentence. Such phrases are free modifiers that can be placed anywhere in the sentence without causing confusion. (If the placement of the modifier causes confusion, then it is not "free" and must remain "bound" to the word it modifies.)
Nancy waved enthusiastically at the docking ship, laughing joyously. (correct)
Incorrect:Lisa waved at Nancy, laughing joyously. (Who is laughing, Lisa or Nancy?)
Laughing joyously, Lisa waved at Nancy. (correct)
Lisa waved at Nancy, who was laughing joyously. (correct)
9. Use commas to set off all geographical names, items in dates (except the month and day), addresses (except the street number and name), and titles in names.
Birmingham,Alabama, gets its name from Birmingham, England.
July 22, 1959, was a momentous day in his life. Who lives at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, DC?
Rachel B. Lake, MD, will be the principal speaker.
(When you use just the month and the year, no comma is necessary after the month or year: "The average temperatures for July 1998 are the highest on record for that month.")
10. Use a comma to shift between the main discourse and a quotation.
John said without emotion, "I'll see you tomorrow."
"I was able," she answered, "to complete the assignment."
In 1848, Marx wrote, "Workers of the world, unite!"
11. Use commas wherever necessary to prevent possible confusion or misreading.
To George,Harrison had been a sort of idol.
Comma Abuse
Commas in the wrong places can break a sentence into illogical segments or confuse readers with unnecessary and unexpected pauses.
12. Don't use a comma to separate the subject from the verb.
Incorrect:An eighteen-year old in California, is now considered an adult.
Incorrect:The most important attribute of a ball player, is quick reflex actions.
13. Don't put a comma between the two verbs or verb phrases in a compound predicate.
Incorrect:We laid out our music and snacks, and began to study.
Incorrect:I turned the corner, and ran smack into a patrol car.
14. Don't put a comma between the two nouns, noun phrases, or noun clauses in a compound subject or compound object.
Incorrect (compound subject):The music teacher from your high school, and the football coach from mine are married.
Incorrect (compound object):Jeff told me that the job was still available, and that the manager wanted to interview me.
15. Don't put a comma after the main clause when a dependent (subordinate) clause follows it (except for cases of extreme contrast).
Incorrect (extreme contrast):She was late for class, because her alarm clock was broken. (incorrect)
Incorrect:The cat scratched at the door, while I was eating.
Correct:She was still quite upset, although she had won the Oscar.(This comma use is correct because it is an example of extreme contrast)
The Death of Adverbs
Once upon a time, the English language had a way to modify both nouns and verbs. Adjectives did the trick on the former and adverbs on the latter. You didn’t just have to walk, you could walk quickly!
Adverbs modify verbs. For example, you accomplish a task with ease. What do you say?
WRONG: I can do that easy!
RIGHT: I can do that easily!
You accomplish a task with more ease than your colleagues. What do you say?
WRONG: I can do that easier than they can.
RIGHT: I can do that more easily than they can.
Less vs. Fewer
A professional’s skills are not on par with yours. How would you describe that: “He has less skill than I” or “He has fewer skills than I do”? You could use both! Less describes something that is not finite, like a trait. In the first case, “skill” does not refer to any particular skill, it denotes skill like “talent” or “intelligence.”
Fewer describes finite, listable items. In the second case, you have a larger skill set than the other professional. You could list those skills that you have and the ones he doesn’t.
Too often, people over- and mis-use “less.” They’ll say something like, “He has less skills than I do.” Say that and you’ve shown you have less intelligence and fewer brains than your competitors.
Etc. Etc. Etc. Etc. Etc. Etc.
Et cetera: a useful Latin-derived tool for shortening lists. However, unless you are a lawyer, using it (and especially overusing it) can make you sound unprofessional.
If you must, use it once. A second or third occurrence in the same document essentially says, “I really don’t know what I’m talking about, so I’ll just jam etc. on the end and try to pretend I do!”
Another et cetera mistake is using it when you should use “et al.” Listing a set of objects? Use etc. Listing a group of people? Use et al. It also is derived from Latin and means “and others.”
Prevarication Junction
“I think that I would be an ideal candidate for this position.”
“I think that my product would do wonders for your company.”
“Studies show that people like this product more.”
Draw a line through each of those sentences. As a teacher told me in high school once, “Don’t tell me what you think. Tell me what you know.” Similarly, don’t talk about studies. If you think a study is reliable—and you probably do if you rely on its results—just say what those reliable results were. If someone asks, you can always point them to the study in question.
These phrases ultimately end up making your writing much longer than it needs to be. What’s worse, they make you appear afraid: not assertive enough to express your own opinion and unsure of what you are writing about.
If you really don’t know what you’re talking about…don’t talk about it
The Affect-Effect Divide
His affect had an effect on me and affected me so much that I had to effect a change in my work environment.
WRONG USAGE: “Our products will positively effect your business;” or “My skills will substantially effect your company.”
Affect and effect can both be nouns and verbs.
Rule of thumb for the most common uses: use affect as a verb and effect as a noun.
An affect (noun) is an artificial air that someone puts on. Do you pretend to have a British accent? That’s an affect.
To affect something (verb) is to change it.
An effect (noun) is the result of someone or something affecting something.
To effect (verb) means to accomplish or make something happen.
Then≠Than
When one event follows another, we use thEn. For instance, “The clouds appeared, then it rained.”
When two things are being compared, we use thAn. “Grandma is shorter than Grandpa.”
Although most people learned this in elementary school, they seem to forget more thAn anyone would like. Just this month a news site in Santa Clara, California published a review of “WALL-E”. The critic said, “The film was shorter then I would’ve liked.”
None is.
It’s an easy trap in which to fall.
“While I am certain there were many applicants for this job, none of them are as experienced as me.” WRONG!
We hope you wouldn’t actually write a sentence like that even without the grammatical error, but making none plural makes it even worse. None is singular. None is always singular.
While the “them” toward the end may make you think, “A ha! Multiples!”, the subject is still none, which (did we mention?) is singular. “None of them is” may sound a little off to some, but it is correct English.
i.e. is not e.g. is not i.e.
Some people seem to think that throwing an “i.e.” into a paragraph makes them look smarter. Unfortunately, most of those people are using i.e. to mean “for example.”
WRONG: “I have sold many products, i.e. washing machines.” This doesn’t make any sense.
i.e. is an abbreviation of the Latin words id est, literally translated as “that is.” In English, i.e. is used synonymously with “namely.” It specifies and limits.
e.g. is also a Latin abbreviation but of the words exempli gratia, meaning “for example.” E.g. implies, “This is one of several possible options.”
Could of
When speaking, certain contractions can sound like other words. “Could’ve” rolls off the tongue like “could of.” You have to be careful that does not slip into your writing.
In the past tense, could, would and should must never be followed by “of.” If you use contractions in your writing, the words are “could’ve, would’ve, should’ve.” If you don’t, they are “could have, would have, should have.”
It’s an easy mistake to make. Scan any document or business e-mail you write and make sure it’s correct.
Wednesday 3 March 2010
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